J. C. Geissmann
The Occasion of Perikles' Epitaphios in 431/0 BCE
(Thuc. 2.14-21)
Let us assume that Perikles gave the
epitaphios of 431/0 and that at least some of his
words and ideas formed the basis for Thucydides'
reconstruction. Why would Perikles give this speech to this audience on this
occasion? Scholars have rightly considered the speech an
expression of ideals rather than a realistic portrait,
and they stress the terrible, perhaps permanent, damage
caused by the plague, against which piety and altruism
were useless. But emphasis on the grim sequel has
entailed a mostly literary or thematic explanation of the
preceding context: 'this is the last occasion on which [the
epitaphios] could have been delivered, since it
portrays the Athens of the 430s at the height of its
wealth, power and confidence' (Rusten, Book
II, 19). True enough, but a close reading of
Thucydides shows that the tenor of Perikles' address was
specifically occasioned by the recent sufferings of the
Athenian audience.
Perikles had persuaded the country people of
Attica to take refuge in the city, leaving their farms to
be raided by Archidamos: while each Peloponnesian
incursion lasted, those citizens were cut off from their
ancestral homes, graves, and shrines: refugees in their
own territory. 'After they underwent unification
(xynôikisthêsan),'
Thucydides writes (2.16.1 Lattimore), 'most of them
nevertheless, not only in antiquity but in later times up
to this war, following custom, lived and dwelt in the
countryside with their entire households and did not find
it easy to move their homes (ou rhaidiôs
tas metanastaseis epoiounto).' Thucydides' language makes clear that
his brief retelling of Theseus' unification (synoikismos) of Attica (2.15.1&endash;2) is not a
digression but a timely reminder, for the Athenians took
pride in their (supposedly unique) social stability and
cohesion, a happy result of their long peaceable
residence on the same land (1.2.5), and this cherished
tradition was now being violated. In precivilized Hellas,
metanastaseis were a frequent necessity, as small, vulnerable communities
were evicted by neighbors who outnumbered them (1.2.1);
these ancient people were apparently not nomads, for whom
migration would have been part of their natural economy,
but they decamped readily (rhaidiôs) when forced to it. Much worse for the
Athenians who accepted Perikles' defensive strategy, for
they had to uproot a long-stable way of life.
'When they arrived in Athens, a few had houses
or places of shelter with some of their friends or
relatives, but most occupied the uninhabited parts of the
city and the sanctuaries and the shrines of heroes,
except for the acropolis, the Eleusinion, and any other
place firmly closed up' (2.17.1). We must imagine, then,
some thousands of people squatting in plots of ground
normally unused or off-limits, with the attendant
problems of water and sanitation. When the news came in
that Archidamos had occupied Acharnai (2.21.1&endash;2),
the young men in particular were infuriated by Perikles'
refusal to lead them out against the invader (2.21.3) and
blamed him for all their hardships (aition te sphin
enomizon pantôn hôn epaschon). Now state funerals for the war dead took
place in winter (2.34.1), when the Peloponnesians had
gone home; but we do not know how many farmhouses
remained habitable: the owners had removed the woodwork
(furniture, door-frames, &c. 2.14.1) and would not be
eager to reinstall it if the invaders were coming back.
So it seems likely that many, if not most, of the
displaced people were living in their squatters' huts
when the funeral rites came round in 431/0, and these
internal refugees will have constituted a significant
portion of Perikles' audience.
To my knowledge, Marc Cogan (The Human
Thing 41) is alone among scholars in seeing the epitaphios as Perikles' response to the ordeal of the
displaced Athenians, which, unlike the battle deaths, was
felt to be unnatural and demoralizing. In this context,
his praise of the country families (2.36.1) is more than
patriotic boilerplate: it implies respect to those who
have been deprived of their homes in service to Athens.
Similarly, the tribute to Athenians' traditional
tolerance of their neighbors' quirks (2.37.2) sounds like
an indirect appeal to make the best of crowded
conditions. Even before the plague, this harsh experience
will have affected the people's morale and capacity for
political judgment. Hence Perikles' call to take pride in
the city's greatness and revere those who have given
their lives to maintain it.
clovis@socrates.berkeley.edu